leonardo_perspective_window

alanradley September 22, 2021May 18, 2026

Published September 22, 2021May 18, 2026

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Art and Science of Perspective

The Art and Science of Perspective provides essential knowledge on visual and technical perspective across art, science, and technology. Our first two volumes clarify and consolidate insights on this complex subject, serving as a definitive reference.
A vital resource for ‘vision-based’ professionals: artists, photographers, filmmakers, architects, lighting designers, CAD engineers, digital content creators, 3-D/CGI/AI modellers, SFX/VFX and game designers, live/virtual/hybrid film production specialists.

Volume 1: Subject Overview
The Past, Present and Future of Visual and Optical Perspective outlines key topics for future exploration and provides a subject overview.
Past, Present, and Future of Visual and Optical Perspective (sample chapter)
< Purchase paperback here >

Volume 2: Dictionary of Perspective
The first-ever Dictionary of Perspective is a standard lexicon on perspective, vision, and spatial concepts with 4,000 terms and 1,200 types/forms.
Dictionary of Perspective (sample: A-C)
< Purchase paperback here >

Resources

Applications of Perspective
Functions of Perspective
1000 Types of Perspective
Common Perspective Types
Perspective Concepts
Perspective Problems
Instruments of Perspective

Info-Graphics

Perspective Imaging Process
Categories of Perspective
Classic Forms: Perspective Projection
Classic Forms: Parallel Projection
Taxonomy of Perspective
Perspective Phenomena (all)
Perspective Phenomena (extrinsic)

City Panorama

Night Sky Panorama

Seasons

Lunar Eclipse

Solar Eclipse

Rainbow

Shadows (Sun)

Shadows (Moon)

Stage Lighting

Reflection

Undersea World

Mountain Panorama

Balloon Panorama

Crystal Spectrum

Anamorphic Image

Mirage

Perspective of Lines

Perspective of Surfaces

Scale Diminuation

Perspective Distortion

Aerial Perspective

Vertical Vanishing Piont

Guggenheim Museum

St Peter's Basilica

Earth from Space

Natural Perspective (Environmental)
A category of Visual, Optical, and Technical Perspective consisting of naturally occurring optical phenomena; such as the projection of shapes and shadows, viewpoint geometries, reflection, and optical line-of-sight problems, plus astronomical seasons, eclipses, the rotation of the heavens, etc.

Human Eye

Light Ray Optics by Vitruvius (1521)

Light Rays by Leonardo da Vinci (1500)

Visual Rays - Codex Huygons (1585)

Thaumaturgus Opticus…, by J.F. Niceron, 1646

Visual Pyramid by Taylor (1665)

Descartes: Human Vision (1664)

Descartes: Diagram of Eye (1664)

Visual Perspective - by Abraham Bosse (1665)

Le Due Regole Della Prospettiva, J. Barozzi (Vignola), 1583

Pyramid of Vision (1800)

Position finding by ‘shooting’ the Sun

Retinal Imag)e

Visual Hemisphere

Curvilinear Perspective
by Albert Flocon and Andre Barre (1987).

Perspective Window by Kim Veltman

Optics of Eye

Sphere of Vision by Dick Termes

Natural Perspective (Visual - 2nd type)
A category of Visual, Optical and Technical Perspective concerned with direct looking at spatial reality using human or animal vision.

Mathematical Perspective
A category of Visual, Optical, and Technical Perspective that involves accurate modelling of spatial reality; formed by Projection Perspective (visual projection) or Geometrical Perspective (graphical calculations).

Egyptian Hieroglyphs

Early Starchart - 1500 BC

The Maestra by Duccio (1308-1311)

Trinity by Masaccio (1426 – 1428)

Alberti: legitimate construction [linear perspective] (1450)

Linear Perspective image by Paolo Uccello (1467)

Idealised view of Urbino City (after 1470)

The Bierra Madonna by Piero della Francesca (1472)

Perspective study by Leonardo da Vinci (1481)

Oculus, Mantegna, 1465

The Last Supper, Leonardo da Vinci, 1495

Anatomical multi-views and motion perspectives by Leonardo da Vinci (approx. 1500)

School of Athens by Raphiel (1509-1511)

Perspective Method by Durer (1525)

Salone delle Prospettive, Rome, 1517

Palastarchitektur mit Badenden by Hans Vredeman de Vries (1596)

Perspective, Hans Vredeman de Vries (1604-1605).

A Regatta on the Grand Canal, Canaletto, 1733

The Plains of Heaven, John Martin, 1851

Les Demoiselles d’Avignon by Pablo Picasso, 1907

The Street Enters the House, Umberto Boccioni, 1911

Phantom Perspective, Paul Klee, 1920

The Disintegration of the Persistence of Memory, 1952, Salvador Dalí.

Galatea of the Spheres, 1952, Salvador Dali.

Print Gallery, M.C. Escher, 1956.

Fractal Image (1980s)

Graphical Perspective: Painting on a 3D sphere by Dick Termes [6-point] (1990s)

Avatar 2 Movie: CGI + Motion Capture, 2022.

Representation in a Planisphere using Mercator Projection, by Emilio Frisia, 1993.

Graphical Perspective
A category of Visual, Optical, and Technical Perspective that involves copying spatial reality / creating spatial appearance(s); often by means of drawing, painting, computer graphics, etc. Graphical Perspective may involve/rely-upon elements of Mathematical Perspective; the main difference being that Graphical Perspective involves constructing appearances (of many kinds), whereas Mathematical Perspective involves modelling spatial reality with a high degree of accuracy/precision.

Sundial (1500 BC)

Antikythera Mechanism (2nd century BC)

Sector (Proportional Compass) - 1597

Sextant

Camera Obscura

Refracting Telescope

Newtonian Telescope

Compound Microscope

Magic lantern projector

Stereoscope

Photographic Camera

Movie Camera

Hologram (1950s)

Circle Vision 360 Camera (1955)

Mitchel movie camera used in Hollywood film (1940s)

Cinerama Wide-Screen Cinema (1950s)

Disney Circle Vision 360 (1967)

OMNIMAX Theatre (1991)

OMNIMAX Theatre in Vancouver

Instrument Perspective
A category of Visual, Optical, and Technical Perspective that involves surveying, observing, capturing and measuring spatial reality; and projecting spatial appearance(s); and by means of optical instrumentation such as a lens, camera, telescope, microscope, projector, photographic or movie camera etc.

Chateau de Versailles – Linear perspective applied to the environment (1608)

Actual stage set in Torelli (1644)

Artificial anamorphosis: Andrea Pozzo’s painted ceiling and trompe-l’oeil dome (Apse), 1690

Forced/trick perspective Illusion: Peppers Ghost (1862)

Projection mapping Illusion (Disneyland)

Simulated / Forced Perspective (Illusion)
A category of Visual, Optical and Technical Perspective that involves creating the appearance of a false, adjusted, or illusive spatial reality.

Space 360 - Fully Immersive Theatre

Duel Sided 360 Degree Curved Display

Atmasphera 360 Dome Theatre

Paseo Lumenscape Taos Dome Theatre

Circle Vision 360 film of China

360 Degree Photograph

Panoramic Photograph

VR User Interface

Imaginary use of Virtual/Augmented Reality System

Virtual/Augmented Reality System

IMAX Journey through Universe

Photosynth, 2017

Lightstage 3D Image Capture

Powers of Ten

360-Degree Universal Sphere Dome Theatre

New Media Perspective (VR, AR, MR, ER)
A category of Visual, Optical, and Technical Perspective that involves capturing, connecting/linking, ordering, constructing (mimesis), matching, mixing, exploring, and cross-matching: multiple perspective view(s); utilising a digital new-media / old-media system comprised of large numbers of integrated viewpoints (or networked viewpoints).

Roman mural painting showing proto-perspective effects
(79 AD).

Pseudo-perspectival methods: in the Bedford Hours (1200)

Inverted perspective in Chinese handscroll (1700s)

Non-Technical Perspective
A category of Visual, Optical Perspective defined as any non-systematic process that produces a detailed visual image, representation, model or view, of a spatial scene. Formed using optically, mathematically, geometrically, or logically incorrect/unknown/inconsistent principles.

Conferences, Symposia and Workshops

Events organised by the International associations ALAIPO: Asociación Latina Interacción Persona-Ordenador–Latin Association of HCI (www.alaipo.com) and AINCI: Asociación Internacional de la Comunicación Interactiva –International Association of Interactive Communication (www.ainci.com).