Anamorphic Cinema

Anamorphic Cinema is a widescreen cinematic perspective process in which a wide horizontal view is optically compressed during image capture so that it can be recorded within a narrower film or image format, and is subsequently expanded during projection or presentation to restore the intended wide image.

The defining principle is therefore not simply the use of a wide screen or a particular lens. It is the coordinated transformation of the image through two related stages:

Wide-Field Scene → Anamorphic Compression → Compressed Recorded Image → Anamorphic Expansion → Wide-Field Cinema Image.

Anamorphic Cinema is an important form of Cinema Perspective, Camera Perspective, Photographic Perspective, Optical Perspective, Instrument Perspective and Anamorphic Perspective. It demonstrates particularly clearly that the geometry of an intermediate recorded image does not have to be identical to the geometry of the final image presented to the spectator.

What Is Anamorphic Cinema?

The Dictionary of Perspective defines Anamorphic Cinema as a special kind of widescreen cinematic process in which a cinema camera uses an anamorphic lens to capture and horizontally reduce a wide-field view.

The compressed image can then be recorded onto an ordinary-width film format. During projection, a corresponding anamorphic image-expanding optical system increases the horizontal dimension again, producing a wide-field and largely undistorted image for the audience.

The process can therefore be divided into three principal stages:

Wide-field image capture — a wide horizontal field is photographed.
Anamorphic recording — the image is compressed horizontally onto the recording format.
Anamorphic presentation — the horizontal image dimension is expanded again for widescreen viewing.

The apparent distortion of the intermediate image is therefore intentional rather than an accidental defect.

The Basic Anamorphic Cinema Process

The logic of Anamorphic Cinema can be expressed as a complete optical image chain:

3D Spatial Scene → Cinema Camera → Anamorphic Camera Lens → Horizontally Compressed Film Image → Cinema Projector → Anamorphic Projection Lens → Expanded Screen Image → Spectator.

Two transformations are deliberately coordinated.

Capture transformation: horizontal compression.
Presentation transformation: corresponding horizontal expansion.

The second transformation largely reverses the first, so that the audience experiences the intended widescreen proportions rather than the compressed form stored on the film.

Why Compress the Cinema Image?

The fundamental problem addressed by Anamorphic Cinema is simple:

How can a very wide spatial field be recorded within a film frame or image format whose physical width is limited?

Anamorphic cinema solves this problem by changing the scale of the image differently in its horizontal and vertical directions.

Instead of requiring the recording format itself to become proportionately wider, the optical system compresses more horizontal scene information into the available width.

The process therefore separates:

the proportions of the original spatial field;
the proportions of the compressed recorded image; and
the proportions of the final displayed image.

Horizontal Compression

The classic anamorphic cinema process operates principally in the horizontal direction.

A wide horizontal field is optically reduced so that it fits within the available film-frame width. The vertical image relationship is not compressed by the same amount.

Consequently, if the recorded image is viewed without correction, people and objects appear unnaturally narrow or “squeezed”.

This compressed appearance is not the intended final perspective image. It is an intermediate anamorphic image designed for a subsequent transformation.

Thus:

Horizontal Image Scale during Recording ≠ Horizontal Image Scale during Final Presentation.

Horizontal Expansion

During traditional cinema projection, the compressed film image passes through an anamorphic projection lens that expands the horizontal dimension.

The projection stage therefore applies a transformation corresponding to the earlier camera compression.

The relationship can be expressed as:

Compressed Recorded Image → Reverse Optical Transformation → Restored Widescreen Image.

The audience sees the expanded image rather than the squeezed image physically stored on the film.

Anamorphic Cinema therefore provides an unusually clear example of image transformation and reversibility operating within one coordinated perspective system.

The Anamorphic Squeeze

The degree of horizontal compression can be described by the anamorphic squeeze.

Volume 1 describes the classic 35 mm anamorphic cinema arrangement as using approximately a 2× horizontal compression.

The image recorded on the negative and corresponding film print is therefore horizontally squeezed by a factor of approximately two relative to its intended projected proportions.

During presentation, a corresponding expansion restores the wide image.

The principle is:

2× Horizontal Compression → Recorded Image → Corresponding Horizontal Expansion.

However, a 2× system is not the only possible form of anamorphic cinema. Other compression relationships have also been employed.

Anamorphic Cinema and Aspect Ratio

Anamorphic Cinema is closely associated with widescreen image aspect ratios.

Aspect ratio describes the proportional relationship between the width and height of an image.

Volume 1 contrasts the traditional approximately 1.37:1 cinema image with widescreen formats and describes classic 35 mm anamorphic projection at approximately 2.39:1, a value commonly rounded to 2.40:1.

The important point is that the final wide aspect ratio is not necessarily the same as the compressed physical proportions of the image recorded upon the film.

Anamorphic Cinema therefore separates:

recording format;
compressed image geometry; and
projected image aspect ratio.

35 mm Anamorphic Cinema

The historical importance of Anamorphic Cinema is closely connected with the widespread use of 35 mm motion-picture film.

Rather than replacing the established film gauge with a radically wider recording medium, anamorphic optics allowed a wide horizontal scene to be compressed into an existing film format.

Volume 1 describes a typical 35 mm anamorphic arrangement in which:

an anamorphic lens is used during photography;
the film image is horizontally compressed by approximately 2×;
the same compressed relationship is carried by the cinema print; and
an anamorphic projection lens expands the image to approximately 2.39:1 on the cinema screen.

This allowed widescreen presentation while retaining much of the established 35 mm cinema infrastructure.

CinemaScope

CinemaScope is one of the best-known historical forms of Anamorphic Cinema.

Volume 1 describes CinemaScope as a widescreen system used from 1953 to 1967 in which anamorphic optics compressed a wide image onto 35 mm film.

The system had an important practical advantage: cinemas could continue using existing projection equipment with the addition of an appropriate anamorphic lens arrangement.

The CinemaScope process can therefore be represented as:

Wide Scene → Anamorphic Camera Optics → 35 mm Compressed Image → Existing Cinema Projection System + Anamorphic Adapter → Widescreen Image.

CinemaScope demonstrates how optical transformation enabled a substantial change in displayed image proportions without requiring an entirely new fundamental film gauge.

Scope Cinema

The term “Scope” became closely associated with anamorphic widescreen filming.

The Dictionary of Perspective identifies the anamorphic lens as an Anamorphic or Scope Aspect Lens and notes that filming with an anamorphic camera lens can be described as filming in “scope”.

Scope therefore refers to the broader anamorphic cinema relationship in which a wide horizontal field is optically transformed for recording and subsequent display.

The defining feature is not simply that the finished image is wide. It is that the wide image has been produced through an anamorphic compression-and-expansion process.

Anamorphic or Scope Aspect Lens

The optical component central to the process is the Anamorphic Lens, also called a Scope Aspect Lens.

The Dictionary of Perspective defines this lens through its ability to optically squeeze the horizontal image, thereby capturing a substantially wider horizontal field relative to the vertical than a standard non-anamorphic arrangement.

The lens therefore introduces different magnification relationships in different cardinal image directions.

This is the technical principle identified in the Dictionary as Anamorphic Perspective B:1:

Image Scale Transformed Differently in X and Y → Anamorphic Image Shape.

Anamorphic Cinema is one important technological application of that wider principle.

Anamorphic Cinema and Anamorphic Perspective

Anamorphic Cinema and Anamorphic Perspective should not be treated as identical terms.

Anamorphic Perspective is the broader family of perspective transformations in which image geometry is deliberately altered and may subsequently be restored or revealed through another viewing, optical or geometrical relationship.

Anamorphic Cinema is one particular optical and cinematic form of that principle.

Accordingly:

Anamorphic Perspective = broad principle and family of transformed perspective forms.

Anamorphic Cinema = widescreen moving-image application using anamorphic image transformation.

Anamorphic Cinema versus Anamorphosis

Anamorphic Cinema is also different from the familiar artistic form of Anamorphosis.

In traditional perspective anamorphosis, an apparently distorted drawing may become recognisable only from a selected oblique viewpoint or through a special optical device such as a mirror.

In Anamorphic Cinema, the principal correction is instead incorporated into the imaging and presentation process.

The spectator is not normally required to occupy an extreme oblique position in order to restore the squeezed image. The camera and projection system provide the paired transformations.

Both systems nevertheless share the same broad concept:

Deliberately Transformed Image → Corresponding Transformation → Intended Visual Appearance.

The Recorded Image Is Not the Final Image

One of the most important theoretical features of Anamorphic Cinema is the distinction between the recorded image and the presented image.

The compressed image recorded on film is intentionally incomplete as a final visual form. It belongs to an image chain in which another transformation has yet to occur.

The system therefore contains at least three geometrically distinct stages:

Spatial scene — the original wide-field object space.
Compressed image space — the anamorphically transformed recording.
Expanded display space — the widescreen image presented to the audience.

Anamorphic Cinema consequently provides a particularly clear demonstration that a perspective image can function as an intermediate representation within a larger optical system.

Capture Field and Display Field

Anamorphic Cinema is also fundamentally concerned with Field of View.

The camera system is designed to capture a wider horizontal field than would otherwise be accommodated within the same recording format and image scale.

The final cinema image can then occupy a broad region of the spectator’s visual field.

Two related quantities should therefore be distinguished:

Captured field of view — the horizontal angular extent of the original scene admitted by the camera system.
Presented field of view — the angular extent occupied by the projected cinema screen when observed by the spectator.

The two are related through the complete capture, recording, projection and viewing system but are not themselves the same quantity.

Anamorphic Cinema and Spatial Immersion

Volume 1 identifies a major tendency in cinema history: filmmakers repeatedly sought to create larger and wider projected images occupying more of the spectator’s visual field.

This can increase the potential impression of spatial immersion.

Anamorphic optics provided one important method for achieving this goal while maintaining established recording formats.

Other methods included:

larger film gauges;
alternative film orientations;
multiple cameras;
multiple projectors;
large screens; and
other wide-field cinema systems.

Anamorphic Cinema should therefore be understood within the broader history of attempts to expand the cinematic visual field.

Widescreen Cinema Is Not Necessarily Anamorphic

A crucial distinction is that not every widescreen cinema system is anamorphic.

Widescreen describes the proportions or visual extent of the final cinema image. Anamorphic describes a particular method by which that image may be captured and presented.

Widescreen cinema can be produced through several different methods, including:

anamorphic compression and expansion;
larger film gauges;
alternative film orientation;
multiple-camera capture;
multiple-projector systems; or
other wide-field image formats.

Thus:

Anamorphic Cinema ⊂ Widescreen Cinema.

Anamorphic Cinema is one important widescreen method rather than a synonym for all widescreen cinema.

Anamorphic Cinema versus VistaVision

VistaVision provides a particularly useful comparison because it was a widescreen system that did not use the anamorphic process.

Volume 1 describes VistaVision as a higher-resolution 35 mm motion-picture system introduced by Paramount Pictures in 1954.

Instead of optically squeezing the image, VistaVision oriented the 35 mm negative horizontally in the camera gate and exposed a larger film area.

The contrast is therefore:

Anamorphic Cinema: make the scene fit by optically transforming image proportions.
VistaVision: make greater use of the film area through a different negative orientation.

Both pursued widescreen cinema, but they did so through different imaging strategies.

Anamorphic Cinema versus Cinerama

Cinerama represents another fundamentally different solution to the wide-field cinema problem.

The original Cinerama system used three synchronised 35 mm camera images and three synchronised projectors to create a very wide image on a deeply curved screen.

Volume 1 records an original field of view of approximately 146 degrees.

Classic Anamorphic Cinema instead uses optical compression to fit a wide horizontal view within a single-film imaging chain.

Thus:

Anamorphic Cinema: one compressed image subsequently expanded.
Original Cinerama: several coordinated images combined across a wide curved display.

The two systems share the goal of expanding cinematic space, but their optical and projection principles are different.

Anamorphic Cinema and 65/70 mm Film

Anamorphic Cinema is not restricted to 35 mm film.

Volume 1 describes the combination of anamorphic optics with 65/70 mm cinema to obtain extremely wide projected images while retaining high image quality and resolution.

The larger film format provides more recording area, while the anamorphic optical transformation further extends the horizontal image relationship.

This demonstrates that film gauge and anamorphic transformation are separate variables that can be combined within one cinema system.

Accordingly:

Larger Film Format + Anamorphic Transformation → Extremely Wide High-Resolution Cinema Image.

The 2.76:1 Anamorphic Format

Volume 1 identifies examples of anamorphic 65 mm photography producing an extremely wide displayed aspect ratio of approximately 2.76:1.

Examples include Ben-Hur (1959) and The Hateful Eight (2015).

For The Hateful Eight, Volume 1 describes the use of a 1.25× anamorphic lens to compress the image horizontally, with a corresponding magnification-reversing lens used during theatrical projection.

This provides an important reminder that anamorphic systems need not all employ the same squeeze factor.

The general principle is:

Selected Anamorphic Compression Ratio → Corresponding Expansion Ratio.

Technirama Cinema

Technirama Cinema provides another historical form of anamorphic widescreen cinema.

The Dictionary of Perspective identifies Technirama as an anamorphic screen process introduced by Technicolor in 1957 as an alternative to CinemaScope.

The Dictionary records a negative ratio of approximately 2.25:1 and a projected ratio of approximately 2.35:1, with the process declining in use by the mid-1960s.

Technirama illustrates the extent to which the 1950s and 1960s became a period of experimentation with different widescreen capture and display geometries.

The 1950s and the Expansion of Cinema

The Dictionary of Perspective describes anamorphic wide-field cinema as especially prominent during the 1950s and 1960s.

This period saw extensive development of cinema systems intended to provide larger, wider and more spatially involving screen images.

Related approaches included:

CinemaScope;
Technirama;
Cinerama;
VistaVision;
larger film formats;
stereoscopic cinema; and
other “Scope” and “Orama” systems.

These systems differed considerably in their optical and geometrical principles, but all formed part of a wider attempt to extend the cinematic image beyond the conventional screen relationship.

Anamorphic versus “Spherical” Cinema

Cinema terminology often contrasts anamorphic filming with conventional non-anamorphic or “spherical” filming.

In this usage, the distinction concerns the optical image-forming relationship.

Anamorphic / Scope: horizontal and vertical image magnification are intentionally different.
Spherical / Flat Aspect: the horizontal and vertical magnification relationships are effectively the same.

The word “spherical” in this cinema usage should not be confused with Spherical Perspective.

A conventional non-anamorphic cinema image is not automatically a spherical-perspective image. The term here identifies a lens or filming relationship rather than the geometry of a full spherical spatial representation.

Anamorphic Cinema versus Ordinary Wide-Angle Cinema

Anamorphic Cinema should also be distinguished from simply using a conventional wide-angle lens.

A conventional wide-angle lens records a wider field through the relationship between focal length and film or sensor format.

An anamorphic system introduces an additional operation: different image magnification in the horizontal and vertical directions.

Both approaches can increase horizontal scene coverage, but their optical principles are different.

Therefore:

Wide-Angle Cinema ≠ Anamorphic Cinema.

An anamorphic image can be wide-field, but width alone does not define the anamorphic process.

Anamorphic Cinema Is Not Optical Error

The compressed anamorphic image may appear grossly distorted when viewed without the corresponding correction.

However, this should not automatically be classified as an unwanted optical aberration.

The altered proportions are deliberately introduced as part of the designed imaging system.

The distinction is:

Unwanted optical distortion = departure from the intended image.

Anamorphic distortion = intended intermediate transformation within the image chain.

The compressed image therefore becomes meaningful only in relation to the later expansion for which it was designed.

Anamorphic Cinema as Transformation and Reversibility

Anamorphic Cinema demonstrates one of the wider principles of perspective: transformation and reversibility.

The spatial field is transformed into a compressed image and then transformed again into a widescreen image.

The process can be represented abstractly as:

Image Form A → Controlled Transformation → Image Form B → Corresponding Transformation → Image Form C.

In a simple anamorphic cinema process, Forms A and C correspond broadly in their intended proportions, while Form B is the deliberately compressed intermediate representation.

This makes Anamorphic Cinema especially useful for understanding perspective as a process of mapping between different image spaces.

Capture Perspective and Projection Perspective

Anamorphic Cinema is unusual because both image capture and image projection form essential parts of the complete system.

The camera operates in the Viewing or Imaging Class, forming and recording the anamorphic image from the spatial scene.

The cinema projector operates in the Projecting Class, sending the transformed image forwards onto the cinema screen.

Thus:

Viewing / Imaging Class → Recorded Anamorphic Image → Projecting Class.

This makes Anamorphic Cinema a particularly clear example of the two basic directional classes of Perspective Category Theory operating within one image system.

The Movie Projector and Anamorphic Cinema

The Dictionary of Perspective treats the movie projector as an important example of a perspective system combining image capture and later image projection.

For wide-field anamorphic cinema, the projector performs an especially important function because the compressed horizontal field must be expanded during theatrical presentation.

The optical chain therefore depends upon a matching relationship between:

camera optics;
recording format;
compressed image;
projection optics;
screen proportions; and
audience viewing conditions.

Anamorphic Cinema cannot therefore be understood by examining the camera lens in isolation.

Cinema Perspective as an Image Chain

Anamorphic Cinema forms part of the larger Cinema Perspective image chain.

A traditional version can be written as:

Physical Scene → Optical Camera Image → Anamorphic Transformation → Film Recording → Film Projection → Reverse Anamorphic Transformation → Cinema Screen → Optical View → Retinal Image → Visual Perception.

Each stage has its own spatial and image relationships.

The perspective experienced by the spectator is therefore the final result of a sequence of transformations rather than a direct copy of the physical scene.

Anamorphic Cinema and the Spectator

The final stage of Anamorphic Cinema is human observation.

The spectator does not normally see the squeezed negative or intermediate film image. The observer sees the expanded representation on the cinema screen.

The complete perspective experience therefore depends upon:

the field originally captured;
anamorphic compression;
image quality and resolution;
projection or display scale;
final screen aspect ratio;
screen dimensions;
spectator distance; and
the operation of Visual Perspective Type 2.

Anamorphic Cinema consequently connects the geometry of the original scene to both instrument imaging and the final visual experience of the observer.

From Film to Digital Cinema

Anamorphic Cinema developed within photochemical film, but Cinema Perspective has increasingly moved towards digital capture, processing, storage, distribution and display.

Volume 1 notes that photographic film has largely been supplanted by digital cameras and projectors together with digital image-processing, storage, delivery and display systems.

This does not remove the fundamental anamorphic principle.

The essential relationship remains the deliberate use of an image whose horizontal and vertical scale relationships differ, within a wider capture-and-presentation system designed to produce a particular final image.

Modern Cinema Perspective therefore adds New Media processes to an optical principle developed much earlier.

Anamorphic Cinema and Perspective Category Theory

Within Perspective Category Theory, Anamorphic Cinema is best understood as a perspective type or system involving several categories rather than as a separate principal Perspective Category.

Natural Perspective — where the target is a physical scene or spatial reality.
Optical Perspective — light is formed and transformed by the anamorphic lens system.
Instrument Perspective — cinema cameras and projectors capture and present the image.
Mathematical Perspective — the compressed and expanded image dimensions involve controlled scale relationships and transformations.
New Media Perspective — digital processing, storage, delivery and display can form part of the modern cinema chain.
Visual Perspective Type 2 — the final image is observed and interpreted through the spectator’s visual system.

Its basic categorical chain can therefore be represented as:

Spatial Reality → Optical / Instrument Capture → Anamorphic Image Transformation → Recording / Processing → Instrument Projection or Display → Visual Perspective Type 2.

Anamorphic Cinema is consequently a strong example of Perspective Category Chaining.

Why Anamorphic Cinema Matters to Perspective Theory

Anamorphic Cinema matters because it makes several important perspective principles unusually visible.

Perspective images can be transformed.
Image scale need not be identical in every direction.
An intermediate image can appear distorted while remaining correct for the complete system.
Capture geometry and display geometry can be different.
Perspective can operate through several sequential stages.
Field of view, recording format and displayed aspect ratio are related but distinct concepts.
The final perspective experience depends upon the whole image chain rather than the camera alone.

Anamorphic Cinema therefore provides a powerful technological demonstration of a wider principle:

Perspective involves not only correspondence between spatial reality and an image, but also controlled transformation between different spatial and image forms.

Anamorphic Cinema — Frequently Asked Questions

What is Anamorphic Cinema?

Anamorphic Cinema is a widescreen cinematic process in which a wide horizontal field is optically compressed during capture and subsequently expanded during projection or presentation to restore the intended wide image.

Why is an anamorphic cinema image squeezed?

The horizontal dimension is deliberately compressed so that a wider field can be recorded within a narrower film or image format. The compressed image is intended for subsequent expansion.

What is an anamorphic squeeze?

An anamorphic squeeze is the amount by which one image direction, normally the horizontal dimension, is compressed relative to the other.

What does 2× anamorphic mean?

In the classic system described in Volume 1, the image recorded on film is horizontally compressed by approximately a factor of two and subsequently expanded by the corresponding amount during presentation.

What aspect ratio is classic anamorphic cinema?

Volume 1 describes classic 35 mm anamorphic theatrical cinema at approximately 2.39:1, commonly referred to as 2.40:1. Historical systems could employ other relationships.

What is CinemaScope?

CinemaScope was a major anamorphic widescreen cinema process used from 1953 to 1967. It compressed a wide image onto 35 mm film and expanded it again during theatrical projection.

What does filming in Scope mean?

“Scope” is cinema terminology associated with anamorphic widescreen capture. The Dictionary uses the term Scope Aspect Lens for the anamorphic lens used to squeeze the horizontal image.

Is all widescreen cinema anamorphic?

No. Widescreen cinema can also be produced through larger film gauges, alternative film orientations, multiple-camera systems and other wide-field methods.

Was VistaVision anamorphic?

No. Volume 1 specifically describes VistaVision as a non-anamorphic widescreen process. It achieved a larger negative image by orienting 35 mm film horizontally in the camera.

Was Cinerama anamorphic?

The original Cinerama system used three synchronised camera images and three projectors on a deeply curved screen rather than the classic single-image anamorphic compression-and-expansion process.

What was Technirama?

Technirama was an anamorphic cinema process introduced by Technicolor in 1957 as an alternative to CinemaScope. The Dictionary records a negative ratio of approximately 2.25:1 and a projected ratio of approximately 2.35:1.

Can anamorphic cinema use 65 mm film?

Yes. Volume 1 describes anamorphic optics combined with 65 mm photography to produce extremely wide cinema images while retaining high image quality and resolution.

What is 2.76:1 anamorphic cinema?

Volume 1 identifies Ben-Hur and The Hateful Eight as examples of cinema presented at approximately 2.76:1 using anamorphic 65 mm photography. It describes a 1.25× anamorphic lens in the latter production.

Is anamorphic cinema the same as Anamorphosis?

No. Anamorphosis is the broader perspective principle of deliberately transformed images that resolve under another viewing or optical condition. Anamorphic Cinema is a specific moving-image application based principally upon directional optical compression and expansion.

Is Anamorphic Cinema the same as Anamorphic Perspective?

No. Anamorphic Perspective is the broader perspective family. Anamorphic Cinema is one optical, instrumental and cinematic form within that wider field.

Is the squeezed cinema image an optical error?

No. Its altered proportions are deliberately introduced as part of the anamorphic system. The compressed image is an intermediate representation intended to be expanded later.

Is an anamorphic lens just a wide-angle lens?

No. A conventional wide-angle lens provides a wider field according to focal length and image format. An anamorphic lens additionally produces different magnification in different image directions.

What is the difference between anamorphic and spherical cinema lenses?

In cinema terminology, anamorphic lenses deliberately produce unequal horizontal and vertical magnification, while conventional “spherical” or Flat Aspect lenses use effectively equal magnification relationships in those directions. This use of the word spherical should not be confused with Spherical Perspective.

Why was Anamorphic Cinema important?

It enabled very wide cinema images to be recorded and projected using established film formats and infrastructure while increasing the potential field of view and spatial immersion experienced by audiences.

Is Anamorphic Cinema a Perspective Category?

No. Within Perspective Category Theory, it is a perspective type or system involving several categories, especially Optical and Instrument Perspective, together with Cinema, Camera and Photographic Perspective and, in modern workflows, New Media Perspective.

Anamorphic Cinema within the Wider Field of Perspective

Anamorphic Cinema is much more than a method for producing a characteristically wide movie image. It is an unusually clear example of a multi-stage perspective transformation system.

A wide spatial field is first converted into a compressed optical image. That image is stored in a form whose proportions are deliberately different from the final intended appearance. During presentation, a second transformation expands the image so that it occupies the required widescreen format.

The process therefore links spatial reality, camera viewpoint, field of view, optical transformation, image scale, film or sensor format, projection, screen geometry and visual perception.

Seen in this wider context, Anamorphic Cinema demonstrates one of the central principles of perspective science: an image may be deliberately transformed into one geometrical form in order to be transmitted, recorded or processed, and then transformed again to produce another intended visual appearance.

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